However, well-designed and implemented systems are crucial to avoiding failures, speeding up the development process, ensuring high quality, and the broader adoption of SSI solutions. Thus, the best implementation is still a matter of research, the requirements of the individual system, and its field of application. Even though the SSI field is dominated by proposals, SSI systems can be implemented in different ways, which is reflected in the absence of a well-defined architecture. In general, the basic building blocks of an SSI system include decentralised identifiers, verifiable credentials, identity wallets, a verifiable data registry, and three main actors: issuer, identity holder, and verifier. Self-sovereign identity (SSI) is a user-centric, decentralised identity approach that provides a means for identification, authentication, and authorisation without the involvement of external entities, responsible for identity provisioning and management in current centralised and federated approaches. The conclusion analyses the relationships between the criticisms to develop a holistic and understanding of where the problems in Alexander’s theory might lie. This organisation reveals that only two criticisms relate to the concept of pattern languages in isolation, while the remainder arise, directly or indirectly, from Alexander’s idiosyncratic ontological and epistemological positions. The relationships between these criticisms are then mapped diagrammatically thereby forming the basis for thematic groupings within each hierarchical tier. The 28 criticisms identified in past research are organised hierarchically in this paper into three tiers representing those associated with the: (i) conceptualisation, (ii) development and documentation and, (iii) implementation and outcomes of Alexander’s theory. The intent of this paper is to facilitate a deeper understanding of these criticisms and the relationships between them. Furthermore, the literature that does critically engage with Alexander’s theory, challenging its ideas and assumptions, is often difficult to find, and the criticisms are diverse and complex. Thus, while A Pattern Language is widely referenced in architectural scholarship, most of these references simply acknowledge its existence and fail to engage with its content. Despite this, there is also little acknowledgement in its popular reception that it is only one part of a trilogy of works documenting Alexander’s ‘second theory’ of architecture. This text is also believed to be the most widely read architectural treatise ever published. A Pattern Language by Christopher Alexander is renowned for providing simple, conveniently formatted, humanist solutions to complex design problems ranging in scale from urban planning through to interior design.
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